Quasar

Since their discovery in the early 1960s, quasars, or quasi-stellar radio sources, continue to baffle astronomers. It is now generally accepted that quasars are the highly luminous cores, or nuclei, of distant galaxies. What is still uncertain about quasars is how they produce their vast energy. They are up to a thousand times as bright as the average galaxy.

Discovery

During the 1960s, when astronomers turned their telescopes toward the sources of radio signals that had recently been detected, faint, starlike objects were seen. These objects, which as radio sources had been given catalog names such as 3C 48, 3C 147, and 3C 273, were called quasi-stellar objects, a name later contracted to QSOs, or quasars.

Further understanding of quasars was hindered by the fact that the spectra obtained from this new class of celestial object were unrecognizable. (A spectrum is the pattern of colors and dark lines into which light and other electromagnetic waves are separated when they pass through a prism. From its spectrogram, the composition of the object emitting light can usually be determined.)

In 1963 the Dutch-born United States astronomer Maarten Schmidt realized that the spectral lines for quasar 3C 273, which appeared in the visible-light range, would have been identifiable if they had appeared in the higher-wavelength visible-light region—a phenomenon known as red shift. Just as the pitch of a whistle on a train receding from a listener tends to lower as the sound waves increase in length, so the spectra from objects in space receding from the observer undergo a red shift as the electromagnetic waves increase in length. The spectra from distant galaxies and quasars almost always exhibit a red shift, since, according to Hubble's law of the expansion of the universe, these quasars are receding from the Earth.

Properties

From the degree of its red shift, a quasar's distance from the Earth and the speed at which it is receding can be calculated. Such calculations have indicated that many quasars are receding at speeds approaching that of light and that their distance from the Earth is enormous. Some appear to be as far away as 14 billion light-years, so distant that they may mark the horizon of the known universe.

The size of quasars is believed to be relatively small, about one or two light-years in diameter. This is surprising because the luminosity of a quasar is anywhere from 10 to 1,000 times greater than that of any normal galaxy. Quasars emit a huge amount of energy as X rays, ultraviolet rays, radio waves, and other forms of electromagnetic radiation.

Astronomers have no generally accepted explanation for how such massive amounts of power are generated, but there is no lack of theories. Many investigators theorize that the central energy source may have its origin in gas spiraling into a massive black hole—a collapsed star with such great gravitational force that not even light can escape

Quasars as Galaxies

A theory astronomers now consider to be likely is that quasars are not actually a separate class of celestial objects as are, say, comets. They are, rather, the bright nuclei of galaxies. In 1943 Carl Seyfert identified a type of galaxy that is spiral in form and has a small, extremely bright nucleus and abnormal spectral features. Some astronomers argue that these galaxies are quasars that are close to the Earth and that other quasars may be the visible nuclei of distant Seyfert galaxies. In 1981 researchers showed that various quasars—including 3C 48, 3C 273, and three others—were in fact embedded in, and probably the nuclei of, galaxies. Although this discovery is very significant, it still does not clarify how quasars or Seyfert galaxies, which are extremely bright, produce their enormous power.

It has also been postulated that quasars may represent galaxies at an early stage of their evolution. Maarten Schmidt has found, through study of the red shifts of the known quasars, that the majority of quasars were probably formed not long after, by cosmic standards, the “big bang” that is said to have started the universe. According to this theory these first quasars, which had a brightness a thousand times that of a normal galaxy, have died out, though their light is still seen. It is even possible that many familiar galaxies represent an advanced post-quasar stage.

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